Exploring the health benefits and functional properties of goat milk proteins (2024)

Future research on goat milk proteins will focus on their potential as a functional food ingredient, their effects on gut health and microbiota, and their therapeutic potential for various health conditions. This research may lead to the development of new functional food products that promote health and prevent disease. Additionally, it may pave the way for the use of goat milk proteins as a therapeutic agent for a range of health issues.

2.1. Extraction and isolation of goat milk proteins

Goat's milk contains different protein fractions such as casein, whey proteins, and minor proteins, each with unique properties and functions (Dhasmana et al.,²⁰²²). The extraction and isolation of these proteins from goat's milk is important for the development of functional foods and nutraceuticals (Dos Santos et al.,²⁰²²). In this article, we will discuss the methods of protein extraction and purification, the properties of different protein fractions, and the factors affecting protein yield and quality. Extraction and purification of proteins from goat's milk involve several steps, such as separation of fat and milk solids, protein precipitation, and chromatographic separation. The following are some commonly used methods for the extraction and purification of proteins from goat's milk:

1. Ultrafiltration: This method uses a membrane with a specific pore size to separate milk proteins based on their size and charge. Ultrafiltration can be used to isolate casein and whey proteins separately or together. This method is suitable for large‐scale production and can yield high‐quality protein isolates (Damar et al.,²⁰²⁰).

2. Acid precipitation: This method involves adjusting the pH of the milk to around 4.6, which causes the casein to precipitate out of the milk. The precipitated casein can be separated from the liquid whey fraction by centrifugation. This method is simple and inexpensive, but may not yield high‐quality protein isolates (Augustin et al.,²⁰¹¹).

3. Ion exchange chromatography: This method uses a resin with a charged surface to separate proteins based on their charge. The positively charged whey proteins can be separated from the negatively charged casein and other proteins. This method can produce high‐quality protein isolates but is expensive and time‐consuming (Tsakali et al.,²⁰¹⁰).

4. Gel filtration chromatography: This method uses a column packed with beads of different pore sizes to separate proteins based on their size. Smaller proteins can pass through the beads, while larger proteins are trapped and eluted later. This method can be used to separate the different whey proteins and can provide high‐quality protein isolates (Neyestani et al.,²⁰⁰³).

Goat's milk contains several protein fractions, each with unique properties and functions. The following are the main protein fractions found in goat's milk:

1. Casein: Casein is a heterogeneous protein. It is made up of several fractions. It is a phosphoprotein present in milk as a micelle. Casein is relatively insoluble and forms a gel‐like structure when precipitated from milk. Casein is slowly digested in the stomach, making it an ideal source of sustained‐release protein (Park et al.,²⁰⁰⁷).

2. Whey proteins: Whey proteins make up about 20% of the total protein content of goat's milk. Whey proteins are a mixture of several proteins such as β‐lactoglobulin, α‐lactalbumin, immunoglobulins, and lactoferrin. Whey proteins are more soluble than casein and are quickly digested in the stomach, making them an ideal source of fast‐release protein (Hejtmánková et al.,²⁰¹²).

3. Minor proteins: Goat's milk also contains several minor proteins such as lysozyme, lactoperoxidase, and serum albumin. These proteins have various functions, such as antimicrobial activity and regulation of the immune system. Minor proteins are present in small amounts in goat's milk, but they can be isolated and purified for specific applications (El‐Hatmi et al.,²⁰¹⁵).

There are several factors that influence the protein yield and quality of goat's milk:

1. Breed of goat: The breed of goat is an important factor influencing the protein yield and quality of goat's milk. Different breeds of goats have different milk production and composition characteristics. Some breeds, such as Alpine and Saanen, have been shown to have higher protein yields than other breeds, such as Nigerian dwarf and pygmy goats. The protein content of goat's milk can also vary between breeds. For example, the protein content of Saanen goat's milk is generally higher than that of Nigerian dwarf goat's milk (Goetsch et al.,²⁰¹¹).

2. Nutrition: This is another important factor that has an impact on the protein yield and quality of goat's milk. The protein content of goat's milk is influenced by the protein content of the goat's diet. Goats fed a high‐protein diet will produce milk with higher protein content. In addition to protein, other nutrients such as energy, minerals, and vitamins are important for milk production and quality. A deficiency in any of these nutrients can adversely affect the protein yield and quality of goat's milk. The quality of the animal's diet plays an important role in determining milk quality. For example, dairy cows that consume high‐quality forage, such as fresh pasture or nutrient‐rich hay, tend to produce milk with higher levels of beneficial fatty acids such as omega‐3. Conversely, feeding too much grain without a proper balance can alter the fatty acid composition of milk, increasing saturated fats and reducing unsaturated fats. In addition, supplementing cows' diets with omega‐3 fatty acids or using feed additives such as probiotics can positively influence milk composition. Adequate mineral supplementation is also essential to ensure proper milk production and quality. However, it is important to note that the specific effects of nutrition on milk quality can vary depending on factors such as species, breed, and stage of lactation (Goetsch et al.,²⁰¹¹).

3. Stage of lactation: The composition and properties of goat's milk show significant variations at different stages of lactation, which must be taken into account to understand its nutritional value and benefits. Similar to other mammals, goat colostrum is the first milk produced after birth. It is rich in immunoglobulins, which provide vital passive immunity to newborns. In addition, goat colostrum contains higher levels of protein, fat, vitamins, and minerals than mature milk, ensuring a strong start to the baby's growth and development. During the early stages of lactation, goat's milk has distinct characteristics. It tends to have higher levels of protein, minerals, and fat than mature milk. The higher fat content provides energy for the growing kid, while the higher protein content contributes to muscle and tissue development. This early lactation milk plays a crucial role in meeting the nutritional needs of the rapidly growing newborn. As lactation progresses, the composition of goat's milk reaches a more stable pattern in mid‐lactation. The levels of protein, fat, lactose, vitamins, and minerals reach a balance suitable for maintaining the growth and nutritional needs of the kid. Mid‐lactation milk is typically characterized by a moderate fat content and a balanced nutrient profile. It serves as a consistent source of nutrition for the growing infant throughout this stage.

Toward the end of lactation, the composition of goat's milk can change further. Late lactation milk may show a gradual decrease in fat content while protein and lactose content remain constant. In addition, variations in mineral content may be observed during this period. Despite these changes, late lactation milk continues to provide essential nutrients for the growing kid. It is important to remember that individual variations in goat milk composition can occur at different stages of lactation due to factors such as breed, diet, and management practices. Understanding these variations is critical to optimizing kid nutrition and ensuring that goat's milk continues to serve as a valuable source of essential nutrients throughout lactation. By recognizing and exploiting the specific composition and properties of goat's milk at each stage, we can ensure the proper growth and development of young kids while benefiting from the nutritional qualities of this unique dairy product (Fekadu et al.,²⁰⁰⁵).

1. Goat health and welfare: Goat health and welfare can also affect the protein yield and quality of goat's milk. Goats that are stressed or sick may produce milk with a lower protein content. In addition, goats that are not well nourished may also produce milk with a lower protein content. It is therefore important to ensure that goats are healthy and well nourished to ensure a high protein yield and quality of milk. The quality, physicochemical composition, and properties of goat's milk are closely linked to the health status of the lactating animals. Several factors related to goat health can significantly influence milk characteristics. One of the most important factors is the presence of mastitis, an inflammatory condition of the udder. Mastitic milk from goats affected by this condition often shows changes in quality and composition. It may have an increased somatic cell count, reduced milk yield, changes in milk fat and protein content, and elevated levels of inflammatory markers. In addition, mastitic milk may have an undesirable taste, odor, and color, affecting its overall acceptability. Metabolic disorders also play a role in shaping the milk composition and quality of lactating goats. Conditions such as ketosis or acidosis can lead to deviations from the normal milk profile. Goats suffering from these metabolic disorders may exhibit reduced milk fat content, variations in milk pH, and changes in the levels of components such as lactose. These changes in milk composition are the result of disturbed metabolic processes in the goat's body and can affect the taste, nutritional value, and processing properties of the milk. Nutritional imbalances have a direct impact on milk quality in lactating goats. Inadequate or imbalanced nutrition can result in reduced milk yield, altered fat content, and reduced nutritional value. Deficiencies in essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, or fatty acids can lead to variations in milk composition. Conversely, excessive intake of certain nutrients, such as excess protein or energy, can also upset the balance of milk constituents and adversely affect milk quality.

Infectious diseases are another major threat to the health of lactating goats and consequently to milk quality. Diseases such as brucellosis or caprine arthritis encephalitis (CAE) can affect the overall health of the animal and affect milk characteristics. Goats suffering from infectious diseases can show changes in milk composition, taste, and safety. In such cases, it is often necessary to discard the milk to prevent the transmission of pathogens through consumption. The stress levels and handling practices of lactating goats can also affect milk quality. High levels of stress caused by factors such as rough handling, environmental disturbance, or social disruption can lead to variations in milk composition and properties. Stress‐related changes in milk composition can include changes in cortisol levels, immunoglobulin content, and fat composition. Minimizing stress and providing a calm and conducive environment for lactating goats can help maintain milk quality. To ensure high‐quality goat milk production, it is vital to prioritize the health and welfare of lactating animals. Regular veterinary care, disease prevention, proper nutrition, and good handling practices are key to maintaining the health of lactating goats. By promoting good health, goat farmers can optimize milk quality, benefiting both goats and consumers of this valuable dairy product (Sevi et al.,²⁰⁰⁹).

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  Milking and handling practices: Milking and handling practices can also affect the protein yield and quality of goat's milk. Milk that is not collected and handled properly can become contaminated, which can affect the protein content and quality of the milk. It is important to use clean equipment and follow proper milking and handling practices to ensure that the milk is not contaminated (Sandrucci et al.,²⁰¹⁹). These factors include goat breed, feeding, stage of lactation, goat health and welfare, and milking and handling practices. By ensuring that these factors are optimal, farmers can produce high‐quality goat's milk with high protein content, which can be used for human consumption or the production of goat milk products. Figure2 shows the benefits of goat milk proteins and bioactive peptides. Here are some specific examples that illustrate the influence of zootechnical factors on milk quality:

  

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  FIGURE 2

  Goat milk proteins and bioactive peptides benefits.

Feed composition: The type and quality of feed given to dairy animals can have a significant impact on milk composition. For example, feeding cows a diet rich in omega‐3 fatty acids, such as linseed, can increase the concentration of omega‐3 fatty acids in their milk. Similarly, providing goats with a diet rich in carotenoids, such as fresh forage, can enhance the yellowish color of their milk due to increased levels of carotenoids.

Grazing systems: The grazing system used for dairy animals can affect milk quality. Dairy cows or goats allowed to graze on diverse pastures with a variety of plant species tend to produce milk with higher levels of beneficial compounds such as polyunsaturated fatty acids and antioxidants. In contrast, animals restricted to limited grazing or fed only stored feed may show differences in milk composition.

Herd health management: The health status of the dairy herd plays a critical role in milk quality. Proper management practices, including vaccination programs, regular veterinary care, and disease prevention measures, can help ensure a healthier herd and reduce the likelihood of milk contamination. For example, maintaining good udder health through proper hygiene practices and mastitis prevention protocols can have a significant impact on milk quality by reducing somatic cell counts and bacterial contamination.

Breed selection: Different dairy breeds have different genetic potentials for milk production and composition. For example, some breeds are known to produce milk with higher fat and protein content than others. Choosing the right breed to meet specific milk quality objectives can have a significant impact on the desired milk characteristics.

Milking techniques: Good milking practices are essential for maintaining milk quality. Factors such as milking hygiene, milking equipment cleanliness, and milking frequency can influence milk composition and minimize bacterial contamination. Adequate training of milkers, regular maintenance of equipment, and adherence to milking protocols are essential to ensure high milk quality.

These examples highlight the influence of zootechnical factors, including feed composition, grazing systems, herd health management, and breed selection and milking techniques, on milk quality. By considering and optimizing these factors, dairy producers can improve the nutritional profile, taste, and safety of milk to meet consumer demands and industry standards.

2.2. Coprecipitates of goat milk proteins

Coprecipitation is the simultaneous precipitation of two or more substances from a solution, resulting in the formation of a complex between the precipitants (O'Regan et al.,²⁰⁰⁹). Coprecipitation is a widely used technique in various industries, including the food, pharmaceutical, and biotechnology industries. In the food industry, coprecipitates of milk proteins are used to enhance the functional properties of milk proteins, making them suitable for a wide range of food applications. In this article, we will discuss goat milk protein coprecipitates, their types, methods of coprecipitation, benefits, and applications.

Coprecipitates of goat milk proteins refer to the complex formed by the simultaneous precipitation of two or more proteins from a goat milk solution. These coprecipitates can contain either casein or whey proteins or both. Casein‐based coprecipitates are formed by mixing casein with another protein such as whey protein, whereas whey protein‐based coprecipitates are formed by mixing whey protein with another protein such as casein. Coprecipitates of goat milk proteins can be divided into two types based on the method of preparation:

1. Chemical coprecipitates: Chemical coprecipitates are formed by adding a chemical reagent to a solution of goat milk proteins. The chemical reagent reacts with the protein molecules resulting in the formation of a complex. Common chemical reagents used for coprecipitation of goat milk proteins include calcium chloride, ammonium sulfate, and sodium chloride. The study characterized the chemical properties of coprecipitates formed by goat milk proteins with iron and calcium. The researchers used various analytical techniques to determine the composition and functional properties of the coprecipitates. The results provided insights into the interactions between goat milk proteins and minerals, which may have implications for the development of functional food products (Deeth & Lewis,²⁰¹⁵).

2. Physical coprecipitates: Physical coprecipitates are formed by the physical mixing of two or more proteins in a solution, followed by precipitation. Physical coprecipitation is often achieved by using a suitable surfactant or by changing the pH of the solution (O'mahony & Fox,²⁰¹³).

Coprecipitation of goat milk proteins can be achieved by several methods (AlGhsyar et al.,²⁰¹⁸), each of which has its own advantages and disadvantages. Some studies have investigated the formation and characterization of microparticles resulting from the complex coacervation of goat milk proteins and gum arabic. Researchers investigated the physicochemical properties, particle size distribution, and morphology of the coprecipitates. They also evaluated the effect of pH, protein/gum arabic ratio, and other factors on the formation and stability of the microparticles. The results shed light on the potential applications of these coprecipitates in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Some of the commonly used methods are as follows:

1. Salt coprecipitation: Salt coprecipitation involves the addition of a salt to a solution of goat milk proteins to induce precipitation. The salt reduces the solubility of the proteins leading to the formation of a complex. The advantages of salt coprecipitation are that it is a simple and inexpensive method. The study investigated salt‐induced coprecipitation of goat milk proteins with calcium phosphate. The researchers studied the effects of different salts, including sodium chloride and calcium chloride, on the coprecipitation process and the resulting protein structures. They used various techniques to analyze the coprecipitates, including electrophoresis, turbidity measurements, and scanning electron microscopy. The results provided insights into the interactions between goat milk proteins and salts, which are important for understanding the functionality of these coprecipitates in food and dairy applications (Yen et al.,²⁰¹⁵).

2. Acid coprecipitation: In acid coprecipitation, an acid is added to a solution of goat milk proteins to induce precipitation. The acid causes the proteins to denature, resulting in the formation of a complex. The advantages of acid coprecipitation are that it is a simple and rapid method. The study investigated acid coprecipitation of goat milk proteins with calcium phosphate and the influence of pH and calcium concentration on the coprecipitation process. The researchers studied the changes in protein structure, solubility, and composition during coprecipitation using various analytical techniques. The results showed the influence of pH and calcium concentration on the coprecipitation efficiency and the resulting properties of the coprecipitates. These findings may contribute to the development of novel dairy‐based products and formulations (Li et al.,²⁰²⁰).

3. Enzyme coprecipitation: Enzyme coprecipitation is a technique that uses an enzyme to cause precipitation in a solution of goat milk proteins. By breaking down the protein molecules, the enzyme forms a complex. This method has the advantage of being gentle and selective. The study investigated enzyme‐mediated coprecipitation of goat milk proteins using transglutaminase. The researchers studied the effect of different reaction conditions, such as enzyme concentration, pH, and incubation time, on the coprecipitation process. They evaluated the changes in protein properties such as solubility, particle size, and rheological behavior after coprecipitation. The results demonstrated the potential of transglutaminase as an enzyme for modifying the functional properties of goat milk proteins by coprecipitation.

4. Thermal coprecipitation: Thermal coprecipitation is a technique in which a solution containing goat milk proteins is heated to induce precipitation. This method is advantageous because it is both economical and uncomplicated. The study investigated thermal coprecipitation of goat milk proteins and starch and evaluated its effect on particle characteristics and rheological properties. The researchers investigated the influence of various parameters such as protein/starch ratio, heating temperature, and heating time on the coprecipitation process. They analyzed the morphology, size distribution, and rheological behavior of the resulting coprecipitates. The results provided insights into the thermal coprecipitation process and its potential for modifying the functional properties of goat milk proteins in food systems (Gawande et al.,²⁰²²).

2.3. Nutritional properties of goat milk proteins

According to Park(²⁰¹⁰), although goats provide a small proportion of the world's milk supply, their impact on human welfare is significant. Goat's milk has long been used for human consumption, as noted by Arrichiello et al.(²⁰²²). Prosser(²⁰²¹) points out that several research studies have been conducted to explore the nutritional value and technological properties of goat's milk for the production of consumer products such as cheese, yogurts, and UHT milk.

According to Rai et al.(²⁰²²), goat's and cow's milk have a similar basic composition. However, Park(²⁰¹⁰) reports that goat's milk contains an average of 12.2% total solids, consisting of 3.8% fat, 3.5% protein, 4.1% lactose, and 0.8% ash. Compared to cow's milk, goat's milk is higher in fat, protein, and ash and lower in lactose. Compared to cow's milk, goat's milk has higher levels of medium‐chain fatty acids such as caprylic acid (C8) and capric acid (C10). On the other hand, cow's milk contains higher levels of butyric acid (C4) and occasionally palmitic acid (C16:0). As a result, the regulation of mammary cells differs between goats and cows, particularly in the elongation process of fatty acids newly synthesized by the “fatty acid synthase” complex. Studying and comparing the mechanisms in these two species would improve our understanding of the regulation of milk fat synthesis in ruminants. This area of knowledge is less explored in ruminants than in rodents (Chilliard et al.,²⁰⁰³). In addition, Delger(²⁰²¹) points out that goat's milk has slightly lower total casein content but higher nonprotein nitrogen content than cow's milk. Saikia et al.(²⁰²²) state that the protein and ash content of goat's and cow's milk is three to four times higher than that of human milk. However, the total solids and calorie contents of goat's milk, cow's milk, and human milk are comparable. Figure3 illustrates the typical concentrations (per 100 g) of essential nutrients, minerals, and vitamins found in goat's milk, cow's milk, and human milk, allowing a comparison between the three.

Getaneh et al.(²⁰¹⁶) highlighted that goat's milk has special characteristics that distinguish it from cow's milk, such as better digestibility, higher alkalinity, and stronger buffering capacity. Furthermore, according to Singh et al.(²⁰²¹), goat's milk is a preferred choice for individuals with cow's milk allergy and lactose intolerance. Meanwhile, Sumarmono(²⁰²²) highlights that genetic variations result in differences in the proportions of the four essential caseins (αs‐1, αs‐2, β, and κ) and the size of micelles in goat's milk. Grappin and Jeunet(¹⁹⁷⁹) found that goat's milk has a higher dye‐binding capacity per unit protein (1% higher than cow's milk) and a lower infrared absorption (4% lower than cow's milk). As a result, different calibration curves are required for each species to assess milk protein content. Kumar et al.(²⁰¹²) verified these results, demonstrating that the use of bovine milk standards to test goat's milk resulted in a reduction of 0.04% in fat and 0.27% in protein. Although the primary classifications of α‐, β‐, κ‐caseins, β‐lactoglobulin, and α‐lactalbumin are similar in goat's milk and the major cow milk proteins, there are significant differences in genetic variations and their frequencies in goat populations (Kumar et al.,²⁰¹²). Recent studies have focused on αs1‐casein, which has six distinct variants (A, B, C, E, F, and “null”) in goat's milk. Unlike cow's milk, where αs1‐casein is the main αs‐casein, some goat's milk lacks the protein responsible for certain types of coagulation due to the absence or “null” type of αs1‐casein. This can affect the cheese‐making process. The weaker gel consistency of goat's milk yogurt compared to cow's milk yogurt can be attributed to its low casein content, α‐casein ratio, and micellar size (Sumarmono,²⁰²²). According to Fan et al.(²⁰²¹), goat's milk has lower thermal stability compared to cow's milk due to its high ionic calcium content and low micellar solvation, resulting in thermal instability. Genetic variations in goat milk proteins result in differences in the proportions of α‐s1‐ and α‐s2‐caseins between goat individuals and breeds, as highlighted by Sumarmono(²⁰²²). Furthermore, Da Silva and da Costa(²⁰¹⁹) report that goat milk products have different textural properties, such as lower hardness, consistency, adhesiveness, extrusion force, stability, and higher syneresis than cow milk products. Domagała(²⁰⁰⁹) also mentions that goat milk products have inferior textural properties compared to cow milk products. Goat's milk typically contains oligosaccharides in the range of 250 to 300 mg/L, which is about 4 to 5 times higher than cow's milk and 10 times higher than sheep's milk. However, it is still considerably lower than the oligosaccharide content of human milk, which ranges from 5 to 8 g/L. The oligosaccharides present in goat's milk are structurally complex and have a profile more similar to human milk than cow's or sheep's milk. High yields of these oligosaccharides have been successfully isolated from goat's milk (Martinez‐Ferez et al.,²⁰⁰⁶) and research has demonstrated their anti‐inflammatory properties in rat models of colitis induced by hapten or dextran sodium sulfate (Daddaoua et al.,²⁰⁰⁶). As a result, goat's milk is considered a promising natural source of oligosaccharides similar to those found in human milk, making it an attractive option for the development of infant formulae, follow‐on formulae, and health‐promoting products due to its composition and content.

2.4. Functional properties of goat milk proteins

Goat milk proteins (GMPCs) have been found to have various applications in the food industry due to their unique properties, including emulsification, gelling, and water binding. In this article, we will discuss some of the applications of GMPCs in the food industry (Alu'datt et al.,²⁰¹³).

2.5. Health benefits of goat milk proteins

Goat's milk is a nutritious food, rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals, and other essential nutrients (Yadav et al.,²⁰¹⁶). In particular, the proteins found in goat's milk have been shown to have numerous health benefits. Goat's milk is a nutritious food, rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals, and other essential nutrients (Yadav et al.,²⁰¹⁶). In particular, the proteins found in goat's milk have been shown to provide numerous health benefits. In this response, we will explore the various health benefits of goat milk proteins, including their immunomodulatory effects, allergy management properties, anti‐inflammatory and antioxidant effects, antimicrobial and anticancer properties, and potential therapeutic applications.

TABLE 1

Goat's milk health effects.

6.1. Conclusion

Goat milk proteins have been shown to have coprecipitates, nutritional and functional properties, and health benefits. The coprecipitates of goat milk proteins have been shown to have enhanced solubility and emulsifying properties compared to single protein isolates. Goat milk proteins are highly nutritious, containing all the essential amino acids required by the human body, as well as a high concentration of minerals and vitamins. The functional properties of goat milk proteins make them useful in the food industry for various applications, including improving the texture, emulsification, and foaming properties of food products. In addition, studies have shown that the proteins found in goat's milk have health benefits, such as anti‐inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. As a result, these proteins are considered a potential therapeutic option for a variety of diseases.

6.2. Future research

Despite the growing interest in goat milk proteins, more research is needed to fully understand their properties and potential applications. Further research in this area could focus on assessing the impact of processing techniques on the functional and nutritional properties of goat milk proteins. In addition, the potential use of goat milk proteins in the development of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals could be investigated. Further research could also investigate the potential use of goat milk proteins in the treatment of inflammatory and immune‐mediated diseases and as a source of bioactive peptides with potential health benefits.

The results of this review have several implications for the food and health industries. Goat milk proteins have potential applications in the food industry as an alternative to cow milk proteins due to their functional and nutritional properties. The high solubility and emulsifying properties of goat milk protein coprecipitates make them attractive for use in a wide range of food products. In addition, the health benefits of goat milk proteins, such as anti‐inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects, make them a promising therapeutic option for various diseases. The development of functional foods and nutraceuticals based on goat milk proteins could have a significant impact on the prevention and treatment of various diseases. Overall, the results of this review suggest that goat milk proteins have significant potential for use in the food and health industries and warrant further investigation.

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